Woodrow Wilson School of Public and International Affairs-Princeton University

Woodrow Wilson School of Public and International Affairs-Princeton University

Wilson-racists or activist presidency

Wilson for years has been debated among historians whether or not we as American’s should classify him as a racists who ruined American politics or an "activist president who laid the groundwork for the New Deal and the civil rights legislation” (NY Times). Before Woodrow Wilson was president of the United States he was president of Princeton University from 1902-1910. Recently over the past couple of weeks Wilson’s status has been high up in the news because Princeton students are protesting that his name be removed from its “Woodrow Wilson School of Public and International Affairs” (NY Times), this school among many others at Princeton is very prestigious around the world and removing Woodrow Wilson’s name would be a huge change in the Princeton Community. 

This discussion and debate has come up recently at Princeton because both Georgetown and Yale have removed former presidents names from some of their campus buildings who were involved with selling slaves. Though the solution seems simple to many, just remove Wilson’s name from the building, the situation is a lot more complicated than many others. It is more complicated because “'Wilson really is the architect of a lot of modern liberalism…The tradition that runs through F.D.R. to L.B.J. and Obama really starts with his administration’” (Julian E. Zelizer NY Times). This decision is hard for many Princeton administrators because Wilson according to polls earlier this year was “in the top 10 United States presidents” and he did a lot of good for this country, for example his idea for the League of Nations, which would have worked well for the country if the Republicans weren’t so stubborn and angry about Wilson neglecting them in his decisions in Paris. Wilson had many accomplishments “including his leadership in WWI (he won the 1919 Nobel Peace Prize and advocacy for national self-determination in international relations and, on the domestic front, the creation of the Federal Reserve, the Federal Trade Commission, the graduate income tax, and new antitrust and labor laws” (NY Times). Wilson was one of the best presidents the United States had in terms of his accomplishments especially with his rough times especially WWI, but him being a racist puts his entire reputation at stake. Wilson did many great things for this country, but those great things were only great for the whites or WASPS. “As president of Princeton, [Wilson] discouraged an African-American prospective student from applying, calling it ‘altogether inadvisable for a colored man to enter Princeton’” (NY Times). As governor of New Jersey his administration included no blacks, and when appointed president of the United States his cabinet was heavily run by Southern racists. Wilson was a racist which tarnishes his reputation in the view of many, but he was in fact a great president. Though I am anything but racist I believe that the Woodrow Wilson School of Public and International Affairs should remain with the name it has always had. Wilson was a great president and was fabulous with both international and public affairs and to keep his legacy I believe that it is ok for Princeton University to keep the schools name the way it is even though Wilson was in fact a racist. 
http://www.nytimes.com/2015/11/30/arts/woodrow-wilsons-legacy-gets-complicated.html?_r=0

How has the invention of the plane changed the way we live?

The plane has had a major impact on the world. It has changed the way we think, the way we travel, the overall culture of the world, and the way businesses work.
 

  Before the plane people only thought of traveling across the ocean by boat. A boat took more than two months to cross the atlantic in the colonial period. This hindered the ability for people to communicate and the ability to migrate across the ocean. Now a days people can cross the atlantic by plane in a little under 10 hours. Packages can get to people over night, a person can be anywhere in the world with in 24 hours and the most important, they provide a safe way of travaling long distances. In the olden days many, many people died on their voyages. This is because of cramped conditions, lack of food, and disease. The cultural knowledge of the world has improved greatly.
 

  Before the airplane was invented the world did not know that much about different cultures. The airplane has made it possible for people to travel the world and experience cultures that are very different from their own. This does not effect the world directly although it does creat a world in wich we can accept different cultures and people easier than we used to.
 

  Finally many peoples work takes them around the world frequently. Planes have made it possible for this to happen.



http://www.fusd.net/historyday/2001/Wright_Bros/culture.html

Flappers: The New Independent Woman

Cover of Life Magazine of a Flapper with an older man, 1926

Flappers emerged during the Roaring Twenties or the Era of Wonderful Nonsense as strong, reckless, and daring women. The 1920s was a great time for most women, women earned their suffrage in the 19th amendment, there was an abundance of job opportunities, and women's fashion was transforming dramatically. 

Before WWI, the Gibson Girl was the ideal woman, feminine and sophisticated but knew how to have a good time and take risks. During the war, women were forced to fill in on the jobs that needed to be completed because men were being recruited into the army. As a result, women at home were expected to create a patriotic fervor and to take over jobs they never needed to perform before. This idea of the Gibson Girl was finally at its peak because of the war and gradually evolved into what is known today as the Flappers. One of the major changes was that women began to break away from the traditional values of waiting for a suitor to approach her and instead began taking these risks herself. This is largely a result of the fact that potential suitors were killed during the war and so women decided to pursue love or any interests on their own.

Women were able to experiment and take risks with how they looked to further illustrate how they felt on the inside. Women began to break away from the Victorian long hair and the "ironsides", or corsets of the past. Instead, the typical flapper had shoulder length hair, wore knee-length dresses that were typically covered in fringe, and wore makeup. The ideal body shape was a flat chest, slim hips, and a generally slim figure. Flappers didn't shy away from alcohol and smoking either. The typical flapper dress draped straight down and allowed movement for women in clubs and parties. A renowned French designer that is even popular today, Coco Chanel, helped to popularize the flapper look.

Flappers usually held clerking jobs because the increase in phone usage called for a greater demand of operators. Women were employed in department stores on all sales floors to allow customers, primarily women to relate and therefore purchase more products.

Although in the modern day flappers are referred to as a revolutionary type of fashion, or perhaps a "costume", it is hard to wrap the mind around the fact that for many women, the flapper was a lifestyle. It was a lifestyle that embodied traits that women today pursue, the desire to be independent, free, and not having to be grounded by responsibilities or societal expectations.

Sources:
http://www.ushistory.org/us/46d.asp
http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Flappers.aspx
http://history1900s.about.com/od/1920s/a/flappers.htm

Getting Jazzy: Music in the 1920s & its Impact Today

"If you have to ask what jazz is, you'll never know."

-Louis Armstrong

From New Orleans to Chicago to New York to all over the world, jazz, or the so-called Devil's Music, has come a long way to what it is today. 

Origins

Jazz made its first appearance in the honkatonk clubs of Storyville, New Orleans. It emerged as a result of racial segregation, black musicians were not allowed to play at proper "white" establishments and so they would congregate and share their music in honky tonk clubs. At this time, jazz was commonly referred to as the "New Orleans" sound because the term jazz had not been used yet and the music had not yet spread far beyond New Orleans. In the early 1920s, jazz music had not yet made an appearance nationwide despite many artist's efforts to spread its influence. Jazz really started to boom when musicians like King Oliver, Louis Armstrong, and Kid Ory surfaced with their musical talent.

Spreading and Opposition

However, once jazz started gaining popularity, people began to criticize its liberal qualities and deemed it to be the "Devil's Music". As a result of this violence, many of the original musicians were forced to leave New Orleans. Along with them they brought their musical talent and this newly discovered style of music, jazz. Hence, jazz music spread to places like Chicago, New York, and Kansas City. Migration also played its part in the spread of jazz music. Thousands of African American left the South to find work in industrial cities in the North, bringing jazz with them. As jazz began to gain momentum, people like Edison criticized it, saying that it "sounded better playing it backwards". Jazz broke the rules and created a new atmosphere of freedom and liberalism that threatened the white elites. However, it is important to understand that jazz was not enjoyed by all blacks. W. E. B. Du Bois, a black rights advocate and leader during the Harlem Renaissance preferred European classics like Beethoven as opposed to jazz. Like Du Bois, many WASP ridiculed jazz and described it to be "trashy" and much rather preferred the sophisticated classical music of European culture.

Integration of Jazz into "White" Culture

Although jazz was largely a form of expression for the African Americans during the Harlem Renaissance, this style of music gradually assimilated itself into white culture. Because of the prohibition stated in the 18th amendment in 1920, the only venues that sold alcohol were "gangster-run" nightclubs that hired black musicians. As a result, white youth would often go to these clubs for the alcohol but simultaneously would be exposed to jazz music.

King Oliver

Oliver began his jazz career with the trombone but eventually switched to the cornet. When Oliver played for "Kid" Ory's band, Ory named Joe Oliver the "King" of the cornet, hence, "King" Oliver. He is best known for his success and talent in his Creole Jazz Band.

Louis Armstrong

Armstrong was invited by "King" Oliver to join the Creole Jazz Band as the second cornetist. Soon after that, he became tremendously popular and drew even more attention to the band. His pieces such as "What a Wonderful World", "Hello Dolly!", and "Potato Head Blues" are world renowned even in the modern age.

Significance of Jazz in the Modern Age

Although it is debatable whether or not jazz was truly a masterpiece in itself during the 1920s, it is obvious today that jazz has made a significant impact in our modern day world. It exists and thrives in jazz pubs, Christmas or holiday music, and pop culture. The idea behind jazz is what is truly inspiring as it marks the beginning of the clash of cultures and the beauty behind diversity. It symbolizes freedom of expression through art to shine light on racial and social prejudices. Jazz embodies the concept of the ability for an individual or a group of people to create a culture and environment that is unique to themselves.

Sources:
http://www.d.umn.edu/cla/faculty/tbacig/studproj/is3099/jazzcult/20sjazz/
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/cultureshock/beyond/jazz.html
http://www.thetoptens.com/best-louis-armstrong-songs/
https://www.google.com/webhp?sourceid=chrome-instant&ion=1&espv=2&ie=UTF-8&safe=active&ssui=on#q=louis%20armstrong%20quotes&safe=active&ssui=on

The Art of the Matter: American Art during the Great Depression

After a boom in the 1920's, the art market collapsed after the stock market crash, with sales of artwork falling 80%, and artist employment falling 9.2%. With Franklin Roosevelt's presidency in 1933 came the implementation of the New Deal, a series of reforms that attempted to stabilize the economy and provide jobs and relief to those who were suffering. Federal art programs were created alongside economic and political reform programs. The programs were created with the sole intent of relief for struggling artists, but there was a never before seen interest from the federal government in the arts.
The government first launched the Public Works of Art Project (PWAP) in 1933. The PWAP employed about 3,700 artists to complete works of art that were displayed in federal, state, and municipal buildings, as well as parks and museums. Artists typically painted American themes, depicting scenes that would be familiar to the public. The government had never subsidized the arts to this degree, paying the artists $38-$45.60 a week. The formation of the PWAP showed to the American public that culture could constitute work, and that those in the arts were worthy of federal recognition and support. Artists who were used to relying solely on private patronage could now turn to the government for help.  

The Timber Bucker, a piece created for the PWAP

The Federal Art Project (FAP) was funded by the Works Progress Administration (WPA), and it was the most significant New Deal visual arts initiative. The FAP employed more than 5,000 artists from 1935-1943. Along with helping unemployed artists, the project also wanted to bring art into the everyday life of American citizens. All types of artists were supported by the project, ranging from traditional, easel painters to folk artists. FAP artists produced hundreds of thousands of works of art, and opened more than 100 community art centers across the nation as well. These art centers were among the first to teach art outside of a traditional college or university setting, and they exposed millions of Americans to new art theories. 

Over the course of the Great Depression, federal art agencies like the PWAP and the FAP helped hundreds of thousands of struggling artists, allowing them to do what they loved in hard times. Through their work, artists were able to depict the struggle and hardship of the Depression, as well as American values that were always prevalent among the people. Although the programs had the short-term effect of providing work for many people, they also allowed many citizens to connect with art in a way they had never been able to before. 

Sources: 

https://depts.washington.edu/depress/visual_arts_index.shtml

http://www.history.com/topics/new-deal

https://www.archives.gov/exhibits/new_deal_for_the_arts/work_pays_america.html

Impacts of the Automobile

           During the 1920, America was experiencing a new industrial revolution that would produce several significant inventions. Among these creations included the airplane, the radio, the television Although not invented by the Americans, the automobile would define American society and culture for the next decade. Innovators like Henry Ford and Ransom E. Olds helped develop this new automobile industry by providing Americans with cheap, reliable cars.
           As the automobile industry grew, several industries benefited. Cars required steel, rubber, glass, and fabrics to manufacture and as a result, all of these industry increased with the growth of the automobile. The cars at the time ran on gasoline, so the petroleum business experienced a major boom. Hundreds of oil drills popped up in the frontier. Highway construction, garages, and service stations were erected to support the industry. And with all these new growths came jobs. Thousands of jobs were created as a result of the growing industries. The automobile offered major economic value for America. However, not all businesses benefited; the railroad industry took a major hit. It lost passengers and also transportation of products to cars, buses, and trucks. The idea that "one industry's gains were another industry's gains" was further reinforced.
            The American landscape was also changed as a result of the automobile. Because means of transportation before the car was by horse, the roads were mainly mud. Cars were unable to run effectively on mud, so the demand for well-paved roads and highways grew. The American government quickly met the demand and by 1930s, America was interconnected with a network of highways. Roadside advertisements also became a common sight on the American landscape. Sectionalism was reduced because interstate travel had become so easy. Boundaries between the states fell and unfortunately for the less appealing states, they lost population as more and more people left for a more attractive lifestyle.
            The automobile quickly became a necessity for American households. Cars started as items of luxury, but soon became devices for transport. They symbolized freedom and equality and neighbors who didn't own a car felt pressure to buy one to keep up with the frenzy. By late 1920s, Americans owned more cars than bathtubs. The car also offered more freedom for women, who could escape dependence on men by taking a casual drive around town.
            However, with the automobile came serious health risks. Accidents were very common on the roads, and by 1951, the one millionth American had been killed in a motor vehicle accident. This was more than all Americans killed on the battlefield at the time. As a result, demand for licenses and safety regulations grew. Automobiles also stimulated more crime because gangster could make quick getaways in these speedy cars. Pollution was also a problem. While the car did remove the horrendous odor of horse manure, it added new pollutants into the air. Carbon dioxide emission from cars is considered a major factor to global warming, although people at that time were unaware of such a concept. Despite these negative consequences, it cannot be denied that the automobile brought a new perspective of life to Americans, one of freedom and excitement.

Source:

"The Age of the Automobile." Ushistory.org. Independence Hall Association, n.d. Web. 29 Nov. 2015.
"The Impact of the Automobile on the 20th Century." The Impact of the Automobile on the 20th Century. N.p., n.d. Web. 29 Nov. 2015.

America Takes Flight

         On December 17, 1903, two bicycle repairmen by the names of Orville and Wilbur took flight for 12 seconds at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina. This "miracle at Kitty Hawk" marked the invention of the first airplane, which would redefine American society and culture in the 20th century.
         With the airplane came a change in industry. In the beginning of the 20th century, trains were the popular method of delivering mail. It took 3-4 days and 3 cents to deliver mail. After the flight of the Wright Brothers in 1903, the US postal service began experimenting with airmail. By 1918, a couple of planes left over from World War I made up the first official airmail service. Americans weren't immediately hooked to this new form of mailing. Planes were still relatively new, and Americans worried about their cargo. Airmail was also much more expensive than mail by train: it only cost 3 cents to mail by train but 24 by plane. Although planes delivered mail 2 days faster than trains, the costs and accidents outweighed speedier delivery for Americans at the time. However, as airplanes improved, Americans would come to favor planes over trains.
          Not only were trains beginning to lose mail service to planes, they were also losing passengers. By 1930s and 1940s, airlines like Trans World Airlines were offering air travel that was safer than the overcrowded highways. The invention of the airplane was a major setback for the struggling railroads. As more and more services were offered by airlines, railroads would fall under the shadow of this new industry.
          Charles A. Lindbergh would become a household name in 1927. In The Spirit of St. Louis, Lindbergh flew from New York to Paris in 33 hours. His journey was a significant advance in air travel for there was now proof that the Atlantic Ocean could be traversed. Americans were captivated by this young hero because to them, he represented the ideal American man: courageous and individualistic. On his return to New York, Lindbergh was showered with confetti and Americans celebrated like they had won the war. However, Lindbergh's achievement was a blow to American foreign policies. As the world grew smaller, the idea of isolationism dwindled. America could now longer hide behind the Atlantic Ocean from European conflicts because now the ocean could be crossed with relative ease.
           While it had many positive impacts on American culture, the airplane was unfortunately a lethal weapon in warfare. In World War II, city bombings were carried out by planes and would leave cities in ruins. Many debate whether the plane was a blessing or curse, but no matter its consequences, it is evident that the invention of the airplane would redefine America in the 20th century.

Sources:

"Fad to Fundamental: Airmail in America." Fad to Fundamental: Airmail in America. N.p., n.d. Web. 29 Nov. 2015.
"Impact of Wright Flyer." The Wright Flyer. N.p., n.d. Web. 29 Nov. 2015.
"The Wright Brothers | Who Were Wilbur & Orville." The Wright Brothers | Who Were Wilbur & Orville. N.p., n.d. Web. 29 Nov. 2015.

Education and Automobiles

Education and Automobiles

During the 1920’s one huge incorporation into the American way of life was the automobile. Automobiles were huge, especially with the wealthy classes. Cars opened up to country to people, and as they became cheaper more and more people partook of this amazingly connecting invention. Many saw the influence of automobiles on transportation, both private and public, but one place that they did not foresee this drive change was the school bus.

Prior to the 1920s the typical means of transportation was the horse drawn cart, serving as a short distance transportation for a few children at a time. This made it so that many schools were very local, mostly catering to a town or a very small area of a city. This made it so that kids had quite a long ways to walk in order to reach their schools. The problem with this was that the more schools there were, the smaller the schools. Therefore, many kids had smaller, less funded schoolhouses.

In the 1920’s, the school bus became motor powered, with a steel body rather than the army grade truck introduced as an alternative to the horse drawn cart. The shift away from the slower, less safe modes of transportation provided for a faster trip to school over a dramatically increased distance. Due to this new mode of transportation schools were able to be consolidated to a district, allowing for more funding per school and a larger student body. As such there were a few key changes to the schools in the 1920s. For starters, due to a more consolidated system the progressives were able to implement many new ideas into the school system. Education was much more student oriented. Also, most schools by this time had a kindergarten program. Moreover, due to the progressive movement school attendance became mandatory. Illiteracy was reduced to 6% of the population and many were able to enjoy the exciting literature written during this period.

Overall, the 1920s were able to influence education greatly, as well as the development of the modern school bus. This was an incredibly important development due to its heavy impact on the educational history of the time. Moreover, school buses have lasted to this day, and are still a huge part of our education system, making life easy for busy parents and kids.

Sources:

http://www.1920-30.com/automobiles/

http://education.stateuniversity.com/pages/2512/Transportation-School-Busing.html

Off the Rails: Modern Trains in America

The traditional railroad was a great catalyst to expansion in the late 19th and early 20th century. This was enabled by Congress's passage of the Pacific Railway Act in 1862, which permitted transcontinental railroads. As a result, 170000 miles of track were laid from 1871 to 1900, compared to the only 45000 miles of track that existed before. The first transcontinental railroad was completed in 1869, allowing people and freight to be shipped dramatically faster across the nation.

The first subway was built in London and was opened in 1863. The United States followed in 1897 with a subway in Boston, which was quickly integrated by the Boston Elevated Rail Company with elevated lines to bring together different methods of public transportation.

A man named Frank Sprague electrified transportation when he developed a system for electric traction in Richmond. He developed a system for automatic signaling and braking systems as well as a method to control the train from an external source. These developments greatly increased safety in the new subways and trains.

However, today, America's rail systems are much less developed than the elaborate subways and commuter trains of, say, Japan. In Japan and other Asian and European countries, bullet trains are common, and Shanghai and Tokyo already boast maglevs that float above the rail, enabling speeds of over 300 miles per hour.

Why has American technology fallen behind?
Michael Smart of CNN gives a few reasons:

For a start, much of the United States is not exactly an ideal market for high-speed rail. Compared to places where rail really flourishes -- Japan and Western Europe, for instance -- the United States is geographically vast. As a result, in much of the country, cities are far enough apart that air travel provides significant time savings, even compared to some of the fastest trains.

However, the biggest barrier to improved rail service in the United States is simply the lack of political will. At the federal level, support for passenger rail service has languished and Washington has devolved decision-making (and increasingly, funding) to the states. With the nation's transportation trust fund nearly broke and no permanent solution in sight, it seems unlikely the federal government will champion high-speed rail -- a costly endeavor -- in the near future.

However, a couple efforts are still being undertaken to improve high speed rail. California has created a proposal for a rail line between Los Angeles and San Francisco. Some privately funded projects (like Japan's subways) are working on service in Texas and Florida.

Perhaps the most futuristic and at the same time interesting concept is Elon Musk's Hyperloop system. This planned railway (?) consists of an elevated tube containing a vacuum that would allow commuters to travel up to 600 miles per hour, while not feeling any side effects. Such visionary concepts are a possibility for the United States; it's up to private entrepreneurship like Musk's to see if they will pan out.

Sources:
Libary of Congress, "Railroads in the Late 19th Century," http://www.loc.gov/teachers/classroommaterials/presentationsandactivities/presentations/timeline/riseind/railroad/
Category, 4-24-2011, "Mass Moments: Nation's First Subway Opens in Boston," Mass  Moments, http://massmoments.org/moment.cfm?mid=254
Engineering and Technology History Wiki, "Frank J. Sprague," http://ethw.org/Frank_J._Sprague
Stephen Smith Blogs About The Politics, Economics, and History Of Urbanism For Marketurbanism, 10-31-2011, "Why Tokyo's Privately Owned Rail Systems Work So Well," CityLab, http://www.citylab.com/commute/2011/10/why-tokyos-privately-owned-rail-systems-work-so-well/389/
Ellie Zolfagharifard, 4-1-2015, "Japanese Maglev train breaks 12-year speed record reaching 366mph," Mail Online, http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-3047627/Japanese-Maglev-breaks-12-year-speed-record-Train-FLOATS-366mph-faster-tomorrow-s-test-run.html
Riordan Frost, 10-22-2010, "Barriers to truly high-speed rail: Why are our trains so much slower than others'?," MinnPost, https://www.minnpost.com/community-voices/2010/10/barriers-truly-high-speed-rail-why-are-our-trains-so-much-slower-others
Michael Smart, 5-4-2015, "Why can't America have high-speed trains?," CNN, http://www.cnn.com/2015/05/03/opinions/smart-high-speed-trains-america/
Ashlee Vance, 8-12-2013, "Revealed: Elon Musk Explains the Hyperloop, the Solar-Powered High-Speed Future of Inter-City Transportation," Businessweek, http://www.bloomberg.com/bw/articles/2013-08-12/revealed-elon-musk-explains-the-hyperloop
Brian Dodson, 6-6-2013, "How does Elon Musk's Hyperloop work?," Gizmag, http://www.gizmag.com/how-does-elon-musk-hyperloop-work/27757/

Literature and Art in the 1920s

Katherine Mumm

Literature and Art during the 1920’s

The years after World War One were a vibrant, exuberant display of society’s crashing into the first modern age. Nicknamed the “Jazz Age”, or the “Roaring 20’s”, this is intense and fantastical age brought a plethora of new ideas of social class, and gave the “American Dream” its first fully formed thought. This time period’s most influential mark in history is its Literature and Art, where most of the new ways of life manifested themselves in impressive ways.

Art during this time started a new movement. Stemming from the frustration of the citizens subject to the desolation and terror of this war of attrition, artists created a movement which incorporated the fresh desire to experience joy. This movement was named Surrealism. Surrealism incorporated both incredible artistic talent and dreamlike subject matter in order to give birth to one of Art History’s more eccentric movements. Influenced by both society’s feelings during this time as well as the preceding Dadaism and Cubism, surrealism started a unique way of expressing ideas previously much less defined and accepted. Some of the most impressive specimens of this spurt of creativity were Frida Kahlo, Magritte, Dali, and Picasso. Each painter had their own specific style, and yet all were able to contribute to this rapidly spreading movement. Kahlo was one of the most influential painters of this time, both in this movement and in women’s history, portraying the upstart of modern society in this time. While not artists of the Surrealism movement were American, this movement as a whole did affect America. It influenced American art, and helped to document the clamor experienced in big cities such as New York and Chicago.

Music during this time was equally as contemporary. The 1920’s were host to one of the most unique shifts in musical history, being nicknamed the “Jazz Age” after its propagation of this style of music. Jazz was a new and exciting medium for musicians, being first condemned as the “devil's music” due to its unique ability to make people dance. Many citizens took advantage of its upbeat rhythm and seeming happiness in order to popularize this music and create a new type of entertainment. Many musicians contributed to the popularization of this genre of music, some of the most prominent being Duke Ellington and Louis Armstrong. This change in musical taste was just one way the shift between the older, collected age and the years of joyous celebration were manifested. This was an especially important shift in the history of music due to the fact that Jazz became popular during the prohibition era, and was seen as a way for citizens to relax and find comfort in music. During the 1920’s, Broadway also took center stage as an entertainment medium. This dazzling show of combined music and theatre served as another way for many people to relax at the shows. Combined with the incredibly moving Jazz era and Artistic changes, this showy business brought new life to the theatre and show business. There were a plethora of new shows each season, showing the excitement for many people to create and add to the growing scene.

Literature during the 1920s also expounded in new and interesting ways. Many novels took to documenting the uproarious time and portraying both the good and the bad aspects of society. One key movement was the discussion of the American Dream, and how this affected the people of this era. Arguably the most prominent commentator on this key facet of American personality was F. Scott Fitzgerald, and his novel The Great Gatsby. In this novel, we see the discussion of American social class and the perceived ability to achieve the “American Dream”. Many novels such as this sprung up during the 1920’s due to the growing popularity of literature and the number of literate people.

Overall, this era was an uprising of art and music like no other in American History. The prosperity of the people, coupled with the space created for new entertainment by the prohibition laws created a decade of creativity and unique artistic mediums.

Sources:

http://www.jazzstandards.com/history/history-2.htm

http://www.arthistoryarchive.com/arthistory/surrealism/Origins-of-Surrealism.html

http://cultureof1920s.weebly.com/musicliteraturearts.html

Killing Bills

Words are the weapons of the politician, but the filibuster is the weapon of the Senator. The filibuster is a "prolonged speech" that obstructs the passage of legislation or just progress in general, but does not break any sort of rule. It is the WMD of partisan politics, deplored by all until it comes time to press the big red button. Within the timespan of one speech, they can go from absurd to controversial to simply off-topic. Ted Cruz credited his father with the invention of green eggs and ham, and told the world that he liked burgers in opposition to Obamacare. More recently and more topically, Rand Paul spent 10.5 hours denouncing the evils of government surveillance. However, the filibuster was not always common practice in the Senate.

Contrary to popular belief, the filibuster was not woven into the fabric of the Senate's creation, rather, it was created by mistake. Sarah Binder of the Brookings Institution reports that at one time, the House and Senate both had similar rulebooks. However, in 1805 Vice President Aaron Burr sought to lessen redundancy in the Senate's rules, and the Senate removed a rule that allowed a simple majority to cut off debate. Removing the rule legally allowed filibusters, but it would be some time before Senators chose to employ it. Only until the second half of the 19th century did the filibuster come into widespread practice as politicians became more divided by party lines. Eventually, in 1917, Woodrow Wilson forced the Senate to finally adopt Rule 22, creating a cloture rule where a supermajority could stop a filibuster.

Even after Wilson forced through this measure, the filibuster continued to be a potent weapon. Even soon after in 1919, cloture failed to stop a filibuster on the Treaty of Versailles. In fact, between 1919 and 1960, only 4 out of 23 cloture movements succeeded.

Speakeasies: A Whiskey Business

The ratification of the 18th Amendment in 1919 banned the manufacture, transportation, and sale of alcohol began the period of Prohibition. Although Prohibition is most known for being enforced during the 1920's and 30's, temperance movements had emerged from as early as the 1820's. Temperance movements in the 19th century came as a result of religious revivalism, with Maine passing the first state prohibition law in 1846. Alcohol was seen as a destructive force in families and relationships, with many women leading the charge against liquor.
Prohibition began during the last years of the war, when Woodrow Wilson called for a temporary wartime prohibition to save grain for food production. The 18th Amendment was submitted by Congress at the same time, and was ratified shortly after. The Women's Christian Temperance Union was integral in bringing about the ratification of Prohibition, believing that a ban on alcohol would protect families, women, and children from the dangers of alcohol abuse.
However, it seemed that the thirst for alcohol just could not be quenched. Speakeasies replaced the saloons of the previous era, with more and more venues popping up on every street. Owners went to great lengths to disguise speakeasies, requiring a password to allow a patron access to the liquor inside. Large quantities of alcohol was imported from both Canada and overseas. As the 20's wore on, the soft piano music common in saloons was replaced by jazz. Women, embracing their newly-found freedom, were seen in great numbers at speakeasies, dressed as flappers, and drinking in large quantities. The introduction of women lead to the rise of the cocktail, where bootlegged liquor was made more palatable when mixed with fruit juice.
At speakeasies, the idea of drinking to get drunk became a popular pastime, one that has lasted to this day. Old social barriers were broken, and people from all walks of life were able to mingle and converse with each other.
With the rise of speakeasies came the rise of corruption and organized crime. Prohibition was more strongly enforced in places like small towns and rural areas where people supported the 18th Amendment. In large cities however, law enforcement could barely keep up with the rate that speakeasies grew. Many establishments had elaborate disguises for when the raids came, but some didn't even bother hiding it, and outright paid out part of their profits to officers. Organized crime took control of the liquor industry, leading to violent turf wars and gang fights. Al Capone was the most infamous gang boss, and many believed that he was to blame for the St. Valentine's Day Massacre of 1929 in Chicago. Many Americans blamed Prohibition for the increasing number of violent outbreaks, as well as the widespread political corruption in the country. Groups began to form to oppose Prohibition, and in 1933, the 21st Amendment officially repealed Prohibition, making alcohol legal again.
Speakeasies are seen as one of the icons of the Jazz Age, and they also had widespread social effects. Speakeasies were places where new societal ideas, like flappers and jazz, could be seen and embraced. Americans from all the social classes were able to mingle with each other and to experience a new way of living. Even though the sale of bootlegged liquor brought about a lot of gang violence, speakeasies were an important contribution to the societal revolution of the 1920's.

Sources:
http://www.legendsofamerica.com/ah-prohibitionspeakeasy2.html
http://www.history.com/topics/prohibition
http://www.1920-30.com/prohibition/

Henry Ford

     Henry Ford was born in Michigan in 1863, where in his early life he took up tinkering, but was forced to farm to make a living. He ended up working for Edison, and due to his technological genius, he quickly advanced to a high level. He proposed his idea of a "horseless carriage" to Edison, who told Ford to go back and improve his model, encouraging the young industrialist. In 1908 Ford released the Model T, causing the Ford Motor Company to be catapulted into the American driveway.
     Ford's philosophy was that his car would be the working man's car. To see this through, Ford developed a moving assembly-line style mode of production in 1914. Ford's production was revolutionary, developing a complete chassis in 90 minutes compared to the 720 that were previously required. To increase retention, Ford payed his workers $5 a day, which was nearly twice the industry standard. By 1918, roughly half the cars in America were Model T's. Ford also believed in education and moral superiority. To fund education and research, he founded the Ford Foundation to support education and development. To enforce moral superiority among his workers, Ford had a "Social Department" which kept tabs on all of his worker's drinking and gambling habits.
     The business of making money for his shareholders went against Ford's ideology, that the Model T should be sold as cheaply as possible. Ford lost a court case against the Dodge brothers in 1916 and was forced to pay huge dividends (approx. 20 million) to account for his alleged mismanagement (Ford used company profits to expand the company and therefore deliver a cheaper product). Ford followed up by buying back all the shares which cost him about 106 million, so that he could run the company as he chose. Ford was now the absolute monarch of one of the largest business enterprises of the time. To increase the self-sufficiency of the company, Ford began swallowing up railroads and coal mines, even a few freighters and a glassworks.
     In later years, the Ford Motor Company began to lose its dominance in the market. First, Ford refused to recognize that there was no longer a high demand for a purely Utilitarian car, and eventually submitted to popular demand by making the Model A, a luxury car. The model A was outsold by GM's Chevrolet and Chrysler's Plymouth. The $5 a day policy fell to $4 in 1932 after the Great Depression impacted car sales seriously, and Ford openly employed police and labor spies to
keep an eye out for morale problems.
     Despite his supposed moral superiority and philanthropic leanings, Ford was a ruthless anti-Semite. Ford bought a newspaper, The Dearborn Independent in 1918, allowing him to publish his views on the "International Jew". Ford's position was questioned when Adolf Hitler said to a Detroit reporter in 1933 "I regard Henry Ford as my inspiration", according to a Washington Post article. Ford and GM were competing for in Germany for the new market as Germany pulled out of their depression. Both automakers had subsidiaries in Nazi Germany that made cars, and later tanks and planes for the Nazi war effort. According to the same Washington Post article, Ford and GM both made huge dividends as a result of the forced labor of prisoners of war.

Sources:
brittanica.com
biography.com
Washingtonpost.com

The U.S. and the Caribbean

Since Columbus landed in the Bahamas, the Caribbean has played an important role in the Western Hemisphere. Valuable trading goods like sugar and indigo as well as the promise of treasure had lured Spain, Britain, France, and various European powers into the area, and recurring struggles caused the territories to change hands frequently.

The US had taken an interest in the Caribbean as early as the colonial period, during which trading routes necessitated that American ships travel through on their way to the rest of the world. During the early years of our nation, European control remained a threat, prompting the US to issue the Monroe Doctrine, effectively prohibiting European colonization of countries in Central and South America. The Clayton-Bulwer Treaty of 1850 stemmed from the desire to limit British control in Central America. In the twentieth century, American influence was expanded with the acquisition of Puerto Rico and the Platt Amendment of 1901, giving America control over Cuba.

The construction of the Panama Canal greatly increased American presence in the Caribbean area. Driven by the need to travel and ship goods between the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, Theodore Roosevelt oversaw the realization of the canal in 1903, but this was the result of a long and circuitous path. Fifty years before its construction, the US and Britain negotiated the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty, which determined that the canal would be owned by both countries and constructed through Nicaragua. However, this project never went beyond the planning stage. Later, in the 1880s, the French began work on a canal, but were driven away by the working conditions and the variety of tropical diseases of the area. Finally, the Hay-Pauncefote Treaty of 1901 allowed the US full ownership of a canal through Panama. Colombian Foreign Minister Tomas Herran signed an agreement with the US to build the canal, but the financial terms were unacceptable to its congress, and the offer was rejected. Roosevelt subsequently dispatched warships to Panama City and to the Colombian city of Colon to support the Panamanian independence movement. They won their independence in late 1903 and immediately appointed Philippe Bunau-Varilla, a Frenchman who had been involved with the earlier French attempt at the canal, as an envoy. he negotiated the Hay-Bunau Varilla Treaty of 1903, which provided the US with a strip of land for the canal in exchange for a $10 million payment and a $250,000 annual payment. Completed in 1914, it was hailed as a major foreign policy achievement at the time.

The US continues to be interested in Caribbean affairs, especially because of its close proximity to the American mainland. There is a constant threat that hostile forces may gain bases or areas of operation in the area, which is virtually our backyard. There are many American citizens living in or visiting the Caribbean, important materials like manganese and bauxite, goods like bananas and coffee, and investments tying us to the region. The geography and climate of the Caribbean also increase its military importance to the US, as it provides access to South America and has a good climate for military training and maintenance.

Currently, there is also a growing attraction of Americans to the Caribbean, as it promises relaxing beaches, pure waters, and warm weather. The amount of American visitors to the islands is growing rapidly, especially among retired people. New facilities being developed to accommodate the host of tourists are increasing the American investment in the area.

The US is sympathetic to Caribbean people’s desires to control their own lives, and the peaceful development of democratic governments is important to American interests. In recent years, Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago, Barbados, and Guyana have gained their independence, and other countries have either become internally autonomous or constitutionally equal to the country that owns them. Throughout the region, however, political change remains a sensitive topic. The people believe they are entitled to decide their own destinies, while they are well aware of American power seemingly looming on the horizon. There is still widespread resentment towards white influence and control. However, the US is aware of this sensitivity, and has been sympathetic towards political development and towards the Caribbean peoples in their quest for independence.

Sources:

https://history.state.gov/milestones/1899-1913/panama-canal

http://www.airpower.maxwell.af.mil/airchronicles/aureview/1971/may-jun/Barrett.html

http://www.americasquarterly.org/new-day-us-caribbean-relations

Emma Goldman

     Emma Goldman was an early Anarchist from Lithuania who was born in 1869. Goldman's formal education was fairly limited although she became involved with a radical St. Petersburg student group. In 1885, she left the Russian Empire for the US, settling first in Rochester NY and later in New Haven Connecticut. Goldman became a socialist, influenced by her fellow laborers in a New Haven textile factory. When she moved back to New York, Goldman became associated with some radical liberals such as Alexander Berkman, who attempted to assassinate Henry Clay Frick during the Homestead strike. Later, Goldman was jailed after inciting riot with a radical speech.
     Goldman also endorsed several unpopular ideas for the time including anarchism, "free love" and birth control. She was jailed for her views on birth control in 1916. Goldman spoke out against military conscription at the beginning of American involvement in World War One, and was jailed until 1917. By the time of her release, rumors persisted that Goldman, dubbed "Red Emma", was involved in a communist conspiracy against the United States. Goldman was deported to the Soviet Union, although she left quickly for other European countries.
     In her later political career, Goldman aided greatly the antifascist movement in Spain. Goldman left an incredible legacy and shaped the anarchist philosophy in Europe and America. While Goldman's radical views changed the American system very little, she helped create a new branch of philosophy and changed the American mindset. Goldman also helped to introduce Americans to several playwrights from Europe, which broadened the American perspective.

Sources:
brittanica.com
marxists.org
biography.com
Several of Goldman's works can be found on the marxists.org link if you're interested.

Unconventional: The US in International Organizations

From its independence, the United States government has gone through many changes regarding foreign policy. In terms of treaties, the United States has been signing agreements with other countries since the Treaty of Alliance, ratified by Congress in 1778, created a military agreement with France against Great Britain.

Some noteworthy examples of the United States participating in international dialogues include the First Geneva Convention of 1864, signed in 1882, and the Hague Convention of 1899, both of which created international law regarding the rules of warfare and wartime conduct.

In fact, the first truly multinational decision-making body, the League of Nations, was the brainchild of Woodrow Wilson, whose fourteenth point of his Fourteen Points called for a "general association of nations". Unfortunately for Wilson, the ratification of the Treaty of Versailles fell to the hands of a Republican-dominated Congress. Led by chairman of the Foreign Relations Committee Henry Cabot Lodge, Congress failed to ratify the treaty; thus, although a President had envisioned it, the United States did not join the League of Nations.
According to the US State Department:

Most historians hold that the League operated much less effectively without U.S. participation than it would have otherwise. However, even while rejecting membership, the Republican Presidents of the period, and their foreign policy architects, agreed with many of its goals. To the extent that Congress allowed, the Harding, Coolidge, and Hoover administrations associated the United States with League efforts on several issues. Constant suspicion in Congress, however, that steady U.S. cooperation with the League would lead to de facto membership prevented a close relationship between Washington and Geneva.

Later, in the United Nations, the United States would come in much closer contact with international cooperation. Under President Truman, the United States was officially the first country to ratify the United Nations charter and become a member, on August 8, 1945. On the same day, the United States dropped a second atomic bomb on Nagasaki, Japan.

The United States is one of five permanent members on the Security Council. Ten other nonpermanent members are elected for two years. The United States, along with the other permanent members of China, France, Russia, and Great Britain, has veto power on the Council. This means that

...if any one of the five permanent members cast a negative vote in the 15-member Security Council, the resolution or decision [is not] approved.
All five permanent members have exercised the right of veto at one time or another. If a permanent member does not fully agree with a proposed resolution but does not wish to cast a veto, it may choose to abstain, thus allowing the resolution to be adopted if it obtains the required number of nine favourable votes.

Another important organization that the United States is a part of is NATO, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization. The United States signed the Washington Treaty on April 4th, 1949; only 12 members founded NATO, but it has since expanded to 28 countries. Ironically, "Article 5 of the Washington Treaty -- that an attack against one Ally is an attack against all -- is at the core of the Alliance, a promise of collective defense." For almost the exact reason, Wilson's League of Nations was rejected by Congress.
NATO's beginnings were due to the emerging Soviet and Western tensions in Europe. The United States agreed to provide aid to Europe in order to collectively defend against any of the USSR's possible encroachments.
Today, NATO manages worldwide crises by using methods such as immediate disaster relief and humanitarian aid. It also conducts peacekeeping missions in Afghanistan, Kosovo, the Mediterranean, and parts of Africa.

There are multiple trade agreements of which the US is a member, but the most significant may be NAFTA, the North American Free Trade Agreement. This agreement allows easier exportation of products between the countries, specifically from the United States to Canada and Mexico. Also of note are the Trans-Pacific Partnership and the Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership, which aim to increase trade by lowering restrictions between countries.

Sources:
History Channel, "Franco-American alliances signed," HISTORY, http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/franco-american-alliances-signed
Patrick Farrell, 6-4-2009, "What is the Geneva Convention?," History News Network, http://historynewsnetwork.org/article/586
James Brown Scott, 12-23-1914, "Full text of "The Hague conventions and declarations of 1899 and 1907, accompanied by tables of signatures, ratifications and adhesions of the various powers, and texts of reservations; edited by James Brown Scott, director"," Carnegie Endowment for International Peace https://archive.org/stream/hagueconventions00inteuoft/hagueconventions00inteuoft_djvu.txt
1-8-1918, "The League of Nations, 1920," US Department of State, https://history.state.gov/milestones/1914-1920/league
HISTORY, 8-8-1945, "Truman signs United Nations Charter," http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/truman-signs-united-nations-charter
United Nations Security Council, "Members of the United Nations Security Council," United Nations, http://www.un.org/en/sc/members/
US State Department, "NATO," http://www.state.gov/p/eur/rt/nato/
Nato, 4-1-1949, "The founding treaty," NATO, http://www.nato.int/cps/en/natolive/topics_67656.htm
Nato, "Operations and missions: past and present," NATO, http://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/topics_52060.htm
"North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)," United States Trade Representative, https://ustr.gov/trade-agreements/free-trade-agreements/north-american-free-trade-agreement-nafta

WWI Inventions: Three Inventions That Weren't Made for Killing

Besides a world "safe for democracy", here are three inventions that World War One created (besides violence and destruction of course).

Sanitary towels/napkins

A by-product of processed sugar cane, cellucotton was invented before the war by Kimberly-Clark (yes, the Kimberly Clark we see on our high end tissue boxes). Cellucotton was much more absorbent and inexpensive than surgical cotton. Red cross nurses used it to help wounded soldiers, however, French nurses quickly discovered that cellucotton could be used for disposable sanitary napkins. In 1920, Kotex ("cotton" and "texture") introduced its first commercial pad. However, selling these pads were not easy as many women refused to buy the product from male shop assistants. As a result, the company told the female customers to just leave the money in a box. In the end, the sales for Kotex was not enough for the Kimberly Clark company. CA "Bert" Fourness invented a smooth, soft facial tissue that we know of today as "Kleenex".

Daylight Savings Time

DST can be traced back to ancient civilizations such as the Roman water clocks. In an essay called An Economical Project for Diminishing the Cost of Light, Benjamin Franklin stated that candles were being wasted during summer evenings because the sun would set before people went to bed. Similarly, sunlight was being wasted because people would still be sleeping when the sun was out. DST was first introduced in America when Woodrow Wilson signed this concept into law to support the war effort. DST was largely championed in the US by a industrialist from Pennsylvania when he encountered this idea in the UK. He is largely known as the "father of Daylight Saving".

Teabags

Teabags were not invented because the war effort needed them, but were invented based on pure coincidence. In 1908, there was an American merchant who sent his tea in small bags to his customers. The tea bags were dropped into water and ta da, a tea bag! A German company called Teekane later copied this idea and supplied troops with similar tea bags.



What people learned from war, if anything, is that desperate needs call for desperate measures. Sometimes, these desperate needs lead to brilliant inventions that people utilize today in their everyday lives. Not all inventions during the war were to kill the enemy, some were invented to save themselves and the environment.


Sources:
http://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-26935867
http://mentalfloss.com/article/31882/12-technological-advancements-world-war-i
http://www.history.co.uk/shows/the-world-wars/articles/5-technological-innovations-from-ww1
http://www.timeanddate.com/time/dst/history.html

American Isolationism

American Foreign Policy Before and During World War II

During the years before the second world war, America adopted an isolationist approach to foreign policy. After suffering casualties and experiencing conflict in World War I, it was most likely true that the general American attitude towards foreign interaction was cautious and unwilling. Indicative of this feeling was Congress' denial of U.S. entry into the League of Nations, signifying that the government was simply not ready to become involved with other countries at the time, even if the League of Nations had contributed to global security. The biggest factor, and one that could have ultimately forced the issue, was Article X of the League of Nations Covenant. Known as the "Collective Security Clause", it stated that members would be obligated to "respect and preserve as against external aggression the territorial integrity and existing political independence " of other members. Wary of entangling itself with other nations and feeling legally bound to do so, Congress decided against taking such actions and remaining neutral. 

During the early1930s, American policies showed the country's continued agenda towards establishing a neutral position. In the midst of the Depression, the London Economic Conference was created, hoping to stabilize the international economy. President Roosevelt declined to send any American delegates, effectively sinking the entire conference. Later on, Roosevelt declared his "Good Neighbor Policy", removing U.S. troops stationed in areas in the Caribbean and Central America, aiming to foster better relations with Latin American nations. 

As totalitarian dictators took power, the United States tightened down on their isolationist strategies. During 1934-1937, Congress passed series of acts that sought to protect and isolate the United States economically. The Neutrality Acts stated that any country involved in a foreign war recognized by the president was not able to receive loans or any other aid from the United States. This extreme policy separated America even further from other nations, possibly creating an even worse situation.

Isolationism-Achievable or Unrealistic?

Since George Washington's famous Farewell Address advocating the United States to not become involved in foreign affairs, the topic of isolationism has been brought up frequently regarding international conflict. Is it a valid point to say that our country should become less involved in conflict in other parts of the world, or is it ultimately unavoidable? Is non-intervention a morally reasonable strategy, or should it be considered the duty of America to fight for its ideals?

Sources:

American Pageant textbook

http://www.ushistory.org/us/50a.asp

https://history.state.gov/milestones/1937-1945/american-isolationism

http://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/leagcov.asp

Can War and Democracy coexist?:WWI Committee of Public Information and Propaganda

It is clear that Woodrow Wilson praised the idea of a "world safe for democracy", but the irony behind this idea is that it can only be achieved through propaganda and oppression of opposition towards war.
Is war really the only way to achieve peace?

The Committee of Public Information, also known as the CPI was an organization to boost American public morale towards the war effort. They achieved this through means of propaganda that resembled propaganda of a totalitarian regime. Much like Big Brother in the novel 1984 by George Orwell, George Creel, a muckraking journalist publicized war effort with help from business, art, and media worlds. The CPI incorporated psychological tactics into their propaganda to touch on people's patriotic sides.

The Four Minute Men created by George Creel was a group of volunteers that visited theaters and meetings to give pro-war speeches. This was to ensure that those who didn't read the newspapers, although few, would still receive the pro-war sentiment and rally. War propaganda flourished in the art world as well. Charles Dana Gibson recruited a group of artists to create war posters and art to gain public support. Illustrators such as James Montogomery Flagg and Joseph Pennell used their talent to boost public morale for the war effort.

Although war propaganda was a large part of rallying public support for the war, suppression of opposition towards the war effort was a large part of it as well. In a country where the idea of democracy flourished, it quickly diminished so that the war could live on. The Committee of Public Information passed the Espionage Act of 1917 to imprison and fine those who spoke up against the war. People who spoke up could receive a 20 year imprisonment and fines up to $10,000. Additionally, the Sedition Act of 1918 made it illegal to publish any information that criticized the government or America's decision to join the war. This act collided with America's principles of free speech in many free speech cases such as Debs v. U.S. and Abrams v. U.S.. In both cases, the Court upheld the convictions.

Living in a country where democracy is so highly praised, as citizens it is difficult to understand that the means to get to this state was exactly the opposite, war propaganda and oppression of freedom of speech. So the question still remains, can war and democracy coexist? Can democracy be upheld without the means of war and oppression? Can one exist without the other? In a world where contradicting ideas are constantly at war with each other, it seems as though there is no way that one can exist without the other.



Sources:
http://www.propagandacritic.com/articles/ww1.cpi.html
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/wilson/gallery/posters.html
http://www.u-s-history.com/pages/h1344.html
http://www.pbs.org/wnet/supremecourt/capitalism/sources_document1.html

Hawaiian annexation

       The Hawaiian islands were formally annexed by the United States in 1898, following a Joint Resolution by Congress. But even before the islands were annexed, Americans were influencing Hawaiian culture and politics.

        In 1778, James Cook became the first European explorer to land on the Hawaiian islands, and the influence of white settlers quickly began to influence Hawaiian politics. Less than two decades after Cook landed, in 1795, the Hawaiian islands were unified under the monarch King Kamehameha. The absolute monarchy was later replaced with a constitutional one, and later by an aristocracy (a republic where only certain voters were enfranchised).

        During the early 1800's the Hawaiian government was forced to accept treaties by several major powers including Britain and France that gave the powers special trade relations with the islands. In 1842, Daniel Webster (then secretary of state) told Hawaiian ministers in Washington of America's interest in the islands. Webster even went so far as to suggest what might be considered a precursor of the open door policy, asking for no power to be given special perks or benefits in Hawaii.

        Liliuokalani, or the last queen of Hawaii took power after her brother died, and in 1887 rewrote the Hawaiian constitution to give herself more power. The queen was deposed after Americans under the leadership of Samuel Dole in 1893. Minister Stevens of the US state department recognized the provisional government and named Hawaii a US protectorate. A treaty to annex the Hawaiian islands was submitted to Congress by President Harrison, but the required 2/3 majority was not met. 

        Luckily for Hawaii, Cleveland replaced Harrison and quickly withdrew the treaty and put special investigator James Blount in charge of the Hawaiian coup. It was found that Minister Stevens had done wrong, and the provisional government was forced to lower the American flag from government buildings. As it turned out, a majority of Hawaiians did not favor annexation.

        However the leadership in Washington changed again with the election of McKinley, who favored annexing Hawaii. The president quickly submitted another treaty of annexation to the senate, which prompted political action by Hawaiian nationalist groups. The groups started a "Petition Against Annexation" and collected more than 20,000 signatures. The hope was to show the American people that Hawaiians did not want to be part of America. The petition and political efforts of both Hawaiian nationalist groups and Queen Liliuokalani paid off, the Senate could not obtain the 2/3 majority it needed to ratify the annexation treaty.

         With the treaty defeated it appeared that Hawaii would remain sovereign, until the explosion of the Maine and the plunging of the US into the Spanish-American war. Hawaii was considered valuable to naval operations in the Pacific and so a Joint Resolution was passed to annex Hawaii (Joint Resolutions require a simple majority in both the House and the Senate, so the necessary support was found). And so Hawaii was annexed to the United Sates of America in 1898. Within two years it was made an official territory although it did not become a state until 1959.

 Sources:

State Department

National Archives

History.com

"Colonel" House, and his political influence

          Edward House was born in 1858 to a prominent Texan family whose cotton plantations allowed House some financial "breathing room" as he moved through life. House became interested in politics, though he never ran for public office himself. House earned his honorary title of "Colonel" when he managed the campaign of one Texas governor. While House's advice was widely sought after, he made a conscious effort to anger nobody with his politics.
          The "colonel" joined the sphere of national politics when he met Woodrow Wilson in New Jersey in 1911. House was at first only one of many advisers to Wilson, but would eventually be the only one Wilson could trust do to their increasingly close relationship. To aid Wilson's presidential campaign, House secured the invaluable support of the long time Democratic candidate William Jennings Bryan.
          In the summer of 1914, Wilson sent House to Europe, specifically London and Berlin, to desperately attempt to negotiate a political alliance between America, Britain and Germany, the purpose of which would be to preserve peace, not only in Europe but worldwide. House achieved success with Kaiser Wilhelm II. Wilhelm reportedly agreed to the alliance, saying that the three powers were the most logical defenders of "Christian Civilization".
           House's results in London were less impressive. The English representative (Sir Edward Grey) told House that Germany's militarism was too threatening to the peace for Britain to forge an alliance with and telling House that “Neither England, Germany, Russia, nor France desire war” (History.com).
           Unfortunately, House's adept political maneuvering did not stop Serbian nationalist Gavrilo Princip from assassinating Austrian Arch-duke Franz Ferdinand, and it did not stop Europe from plunging itself into war.
           As the war ended, House helped to draft the fourteen points along with Wilson and Walter Lippmann, a moderate political journalist. House was one of the few political advisors Wilson trusted enough to take with him to the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, and House was assigned with amending the fourteen points to ensure that the European Parliaments would pass them. House ultimately failed in Wilson's eyes because he sided more with the European allies and less with Wilson himself. This led House to make several political concessions that might be seen as pragmatic, but to Wilson were unacceptable (Wilson hated compromise). Disagreements between House and Wilson drove the two old friends apart. Between Wilson's stubborn negotiating and House's concessions, very few of the fourteen points were fully realized in the Treaty of Versailles.

Sources:
pbs.org
firstworldwar.com
history.com

Civil Liberties during the Great War

During any war, public suspicion will turn towards anyone who looks or thinks differently than the rest of the population. There have been innumerable cases of this in American history, including the Sedition and Espionage Acts, and the American Public League during World War I.
The Espionage Act of 1917 made it illegal for any American citizen to interfere with the war effort, help another country, or escape the draft. The Sedition Act, which built upon the Espionage Act, punished individuals who dared to speak out against the war. Anyone who dared to cross the line the acts set could be thrown in jail for 5-20 years. Out of the entire American population, it was the political dissenters who bore the worst of the repression. Senator Eugene V. Debs urged socialists to resist militarism, and he was thrown in prison for years. Debs even ran for president in the election of 1920 while still in jail.
Robert Goldstein was an American filmmaker who created a film about the American Revolution called The Spirit of '76. The film depicted the cruelty of the British soldiers during the rebellion. Because the government feared that the film would create anti-British feelings towards America's ally, they prosecuted Goldstein under the Espionage Act. The filmmaker received a 10-year sentence and was charged $5000, which is worth over $100,000 today.
The enforcement of the acts was left up to the local US Attorneys. The US Attorney General, Thomas Gregory, instructed the Postmaster General to discontinue delivering anti-American or pro-German mail. This included letters, magazines, and newspapers. Through the violation of their privacy, Americans were thus only exposed to material that the government wanted them to see.
The American Public League(APL) was a private organization made up of citizens that worked with the Justice Department's Bureau of Investigation to identify possible alien spies and saboteurs of the war effort. The volunteers wore "official" badges, intimidated and harassed people, detained more than 40,000 people, and staged raids on private homes. The acts of the APL caused a sense of distrust among the various groups of the US population, which had the opposite effect the government intended.

With the passage of the Espionage and Sedition Acts, along with the formation of the American Public League, the civil liberties of American people were repressed during WWI. It is interesting how individualism was encouraged during times of peace, but during times of war, the government required that all Americans have similar feelings about the war. During wartime, fear and hate was not exclusive to the battlefield; the fear of the government that the American people were not fully behind the war led to the suppression of civil liberties.

American Troops in WW1:

American Troops in WW1:

Any student who has taken a world history course has more than likely heard the term “World War One”. They may have studied the battles of this war of attrition, but the concept of this war that many are unfamiliar with is the sheer desolation in which soldiers in the trenches lived.

The trenches dug in the great war were terrible and infested. Soldiers who did not die due to monotonous enemy fire or a sniper’s carefully aimed bullet often died of disease. There were many carriers of disease in the trenches, Lice, Rats, and Frogs being the most prevalent. Rats in the trenches were a huge problem, because no matter how many a soldier killed, more would likely be produced to continue to contaminate the food supply and nip at both the living and the dead soldiers in the trenches. Lice were a similarly difficult to exterminate pest. These ran rampant among the uncleanly soldiers. Hygiene was not a much thought about part of the war, and as such it was easy for lice to infest the clothing of soldiers, laying eggs along the linings of their jackets. Even if the clothing was washed, the eggs would typically stick and the body heat from the soldier putting the clothing back on would heat them up and cause them to hatch, starting the cycle all over again. The reason lice were so detrimental to the soldiers was because they could cause trench fever, which struck fast and left the soldier with an extremely high fever. They were discovered to be the reason behind this in 1918. Frogs also made a home for themselves in the trenches, and due to the constant muck around the floor of the trenches, were able to thrive and contaminate the food and water supply of the soldiers as well.

One of the most painful ailments developed during trench warfare was trench foot. This was a fungal infection in the soldier’s feet that caused by the constant standing of soldiers in wet boots throughout the entire duration of their stay in the trenches. This dangerous infection would cause swelling, and sometimes would require amputation. There was no way to keep their feet dry, and as such many, many soldiers were subject to trench foot.

Soldiers were not only assailed by a plethora of infections and pests, but by the constant shelling of the trenches. Opposing sides would monotonously shoot at the other side, trying to take out as many from the enemy lines as possible. Moreover, snipers dotted the lines of the trench, firing at any soldier who would stick their head out to look at the “no man's land”. Trench warfare was a frightening, devastating new way of waging warfare. This new way of waging war was one of the key elements that made the “Great War” one of the most deadly wars that the world has ever seen.

Resources: 

http://www.firstworldwar.com/features/trenchlife.htm

The Legacy of Self-Determination

Self-determination is defined to be the process by which a group of people "form their own state and choose their own government" (Britannica). It came about as a result of the doctrine of nationalism, as seen in the American Revolution and the subsequent French Revolution. However, this right to national independence was not yet known as the principle of self-determination. The growth of this principle was fueled largely by the formation of modern European states and the increase in nationally unified thought.

At the core of Wilson's belief, self-determination was required in order for government to be truly democratic. After all, his main belief was in making America "safe for democracy," meaning that he wanted to liberate the people from oppressive regimes. He was firmly convinced in the inherent goodness of humans, and he wished to embody these democratic ideals on a worldwide scale. Simply put, he believed that the general will of the people is perhaps the only source of world peace. In his Fourteen Points, he listed self-determination as an important objective to be achieved after the war, and it was the part of his policy that he most passionately advocated and called for at the Paris Peace Conference.

In the current day, the legacy of Wilson's policy of and support for self-determination still exists and has a positive impact on international relation. The UN Charter, ratified after World War II in 1945, clarifies a couple of things about self-determination. Its purpose is to "develop friendly relations among nations" and "take other appropriate measures to strengthen universal peace." (UN Charter) His vision of a world made "safe for democracy" by the collective actions of multiple nations was the was what former secretary of defense and head of the World Bank Robert McNamara called "Wilson's ghost." (millercenter.org) The spread of democracy headed by Wilson benefited everyone in that a free, democratic world is one in which the welcoming attitude towards American products makes the nation stronger. The question we face today is whether collective, unified international action, such as Wilson supported, or single-minded American policy in the interest of the nation alone will best fit 

the needs of the people.

Sources:

http://millercenter.org/president/biography/wilson-impact-and-legacy